The Restoration in New Spain: War, Regime Changes and Militarization in New Spain, 1814-1820

Authors

  • Rodrigo Moreno Gutiérrez Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.53351/ruhm.v7i15.471

Keywords:

Independence of Mexico, militarization, Cadiz Constitution, counterinsurgency

Abstract

This article deals with a set of historical phenomena located in New Spain during the period of the absolutist restoration. The text is aimed to expose the complex-ity of the events that occurred between the arrival of the news of the restoration of Ferdinand VII as an absolute monarch in 1814 and the new implementation of the constitutional regime in 1820. Among other objectives, the present study aims to analyze the impact of the return to the Ancien Régime envisioned by Ferdinand VII in terms of the political and military structure. To this end, we will first consider the particularities of the New Spain restoration and the vicissitudes of the conflict in those years. In this way, the article reviews the decline and fragmentation of the insurgency after the fall of its most visible leader, priest José María Morelos, and problematizes the arbitrariness and ambiguities caused by the abolition of the constitutional regime and the political, military and financial implications that produced the absolutist restoration ordered by the viceroy Felix Maria Calleja. In second instance, the significant Oaxacan case is examined as one of the few but significant examples of genuine military reconquest followed by the problematic and relative abolition of Cadiz constitutionalism, a scenario that offers interesting cases of political opportunism and manipulations tending aiming at the segregation of groups and entire communities. Finally, the present article examines three emblematic problems of the period in question, which are re-viewed to evaluate the policies of the war: the implementation of the pardons as one of the most representative phenomena of continuity between the viceroys Calleja and his successor Juan Ruiz de Apodaca; the militarism of provincial governments and territorial control structures as tangible consequences of the prolongation of the independence revolution and the growth of the “realistas” militias, the latter as a visible example of the increasing militarization of New Spain’s society.             

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Author Biography

  • Rodrigo Moreno Gutiérrez, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México

    Rodrigo Moreno Gutiérrez es  doctor en Historia por la Facultad de Filosofía y Letras de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México (UNAM), en donde también realizó sus estudios de licenciatura y maestría en Historia. Cursó el Máster de especialización en Historia del Mundo Hispánico en el Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, en Madrid, España. Se desempeña como investigador de tiempo completo del Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas de la UNAM. En México es Investigador Nacional nivel I en el Sistema Nacional de Investigadores (SNI). Ha publicado varios capítulos en libros colectivos y artículos en revistas académicas y es autor del libro La trigarancia: fuerzas armadas en la consumación de la independencia. Nueva España, 1820-1821 (UNAM, 2016). Sus principales líneas de investigación están relacionadas con los lenguajes políticos y la historia social de la guerra en las revoluciones de independencia en Hispanoamérica.

References

Fuentes

Archivos

Archivo Histórico del Distrito Federal, México (AHDF)

Archivo General de Indias, España (AGI)

Archivo General Militar de Madrid, España (AGMM)

Archivo General de la Nación, México (AGN)

Hemerografía

Gaceta del Gobierno de México

Bibliografía

ANDRÉS MARTÍN, Juan Ramón de: El imperio español contra Mina. La reacción realista española ante la presencia de Javier Mina en los Estados Unidos y las Provincias Internas de Oriente (1809-1817), Monterrey, Consejo para la Cultura y las Artes de Nuevo León, 2008.

ANDRÉS, Juan Ramón de, “Los realistas en el final de la expedición de Javier Mina en la Nueva España (1817-1820), en Aportes, n. 79, año XXVII (2/2012), pp. 31-50.

ARCHER, Christon I.: “Soldados en la escena continental: los expedicionarios españoles y la guerra de la Nueva España, 1810-1825”, en Juan ORTIZ ESCAMILLA (coord.), Fuerzas militares en Iberoamérica, siglos XVIII y XIX, México, El Colegio de México / El Colegio de Michoacán / Universidad Veracruzana, 2005, pp. 139-156.

ARCHER, Christon I.: “The Politization of Army of New Spain during the War of Independence, 1810-1821”, en Jaime E. Rodriguez O. (ed.), The Evolution of the Mexican Political System, Wilmington, Scholarly Resources, 1993, p. 17-45.

ARRIOJA DÍAZ VIRUELL, Luis Alberto: “La experiencia absolutista en una subdelegación novohispana. Villa Alta (Oaxaca)”, en José Antonio SERRANO ORTEGA, (coord.), El Sexenio absolutista, los últimos años insurgentes: Nueva España (1814-1820), Zamora, Michoacán, El Colegio de Michoacán, 2014, pp. 301-328.

ÁVILA, Alfredo y Rodrigo MORENO: “El vértigo revolucionario. Nueva España, 1808-1821” en Nuevo Topo. Revista de historia y pensamiento crítico, [Buenos Aires], núm. 5, septiembre/octubre 2008, pp. 99-125.

BERNAL RUIZ, Graciela: “El Mandato de su Majestad y la circunstancias locales. La reinstalación del absolutismo en San Luis Potosí”, en SERRANO ORTEGA, op. cit., pp. 275-300.

CAMPOS GARCÍA, Melchor: “Del absolutismo regio a la monarquía constitucional. Destrucción ritual de soberanos y crisis del estoicismo político en Yucatán (1808-1820)” en SERRANO ORTEGA, op. cit., pp. 107-158.

COVARRUBIAS, José Enrique, La moneda de cobre en México, 1760-1842. Un problema administrativo, México, UNAM / Instituto Mora, 2000

ESPINOSA AGUIRRE, Joaquín Edgardo: “Defensa y militarización contrainsurgente en la comandancia de Guanajuato (1813-1816)”, tesis de Maestría en Historia, UNAM, 2018.

GRAFENSTEIN GAREIS, Johana von: “Insurgencia y contrainsurgencia en el Golfo de México, 1812-1820”, en Virginia GUEDEA (coord.), La independencia de México y el proceso autonomista novohispano, 1808-1824, México, UNAM / Instituto Mora, 2001, pp.185-227.

GUARDINO, Peter: El tiempo de la Libertad. La cultura política popular en Oaxaca, 1750-1850, trad. Centro de idiomas de la UABJO y Mario Brena P., Oaxaca, Universidad Autónoma “Benito Juárez” de Oaxaca / Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa / El Colegio de Michoacán / El Colegio de San Luis Potosí / Congreso del estado de Oaxaca, 2009.

GUTIÉRREZ ARDILA, Daniel: La Restauración en la Nueva Granada (1815-1819), Bogotá, Universidad Externado de Colombia, 2019.

HAMNETT, Brian R.: Política y comercio en el sur de México, 1750-1821, México, Instituto Mexicano de Comercio Exterior, 1976.

HENSEL, Silke: El desarrollo del federalismo en México. La elite política de Oaxaca entre ciudad, región y estado nacional, 1786-1835, trad. Mario Brena Pineiro, Oaxaca, UABJO / El Colegio de Michoacán / El Colegio de San Luis, 2012.

HENSEL, Silke: “Cambio político y cultura constitucional en Oaxaca, 1814-1822” en SÁNCHEZ SILVA, op. cit., pp. 83-102.

IBARRA, Ana Carolina: “Reconocer la soberanía de la nación americana, conservar la independencia de América y restablecer en el trono a Fernando VII: la ciudad de Oaxaca durante la ocupación insurgente (1812-1814)” en Ana Carolina IBARRA, La independencia en el sur de México, México, UNAM, 2004, pp. 233-269.

MEJÍA ZAVALA, Eugenio: “La transición a un gobierno republicano. La Junta Subalterna de la insurgencia (1815-1820)”, en SERRANO ORTEGA, op. cit., pp. 331-374.

MENEGUS BORNEMANN, Margarita: “Los efectos de la insurgencia sobre la propiedad en la Mixteca”, en Carlos SÁNCHEZ SILVA, (coord.), La Guerra de Independencia en Oaxaca. Nuevas perspectivas, Oaxaca, UABJO, 2011, pp. 125-136.

MORENO GUTIÉRREZ, Rodrigo: La trigarancia: fuerzas armadas en la consumación de la independencia. Nueva España, 1820-1821, México, Instituto de Investigaciones Históricas, UNAM / Fideicomiso Felipe Teixidor y Monserrat Alfau de Teixidor, 2016.

MORENO GUTIÉRREZ, Rodrigo: “Los realistas: historiografía, semántica y milicia”, Historia Mexicana, 263, v. LXVI, núm. 3, enero-marzo de 2017, pp. 1077-1122.

ORTIZ ESCAMILLA, Juan: Guerra y Gobierno. Los pueblos y la independencia de México: 1808-1825, 2ª edición corr. y aum., México, El Colegio de México / Instituto de Investigaciones Dr. José María Luis Mora, 2014.

ORTIZ ESCAMILLA, Juan: El teatro de la guerra. Veracruz 1750-1825, Castelló de la Plana, Universitat Jaume I, 2008.

ORTUÑO MARTÍNEZ, Manuel: Vida de Mina: guerrillero, liberal, insurgente, pról. Manuel Lucena Giraldo, Madrid, Trama, 2008.

OSSA SANTA CRUZ, Juan Luis: Armies, Politics and Revolution. Chile, 1808-1826, Liverpool, Liverpool University Press, 2014.

PÉREZ ESPINOZA, Anaximandro: “Contrainsurgencia en el sur y rumbo de Acapulco (1814-1820)”, tesis de Maestría en Historia, UNAM, 2018.

PÉREZ RODRÍGUEZ, Gustavo: Xavier Mina, el insurgente español: guerrillero por la libertad de España y México, México, UNAM, 2018.

RABINOVICH, Alejandro M.: “La militarización del Rio de la Plata, 1810-1820. Elementos cuantitativos y conceptuales para un análisis”, Boletín del Instituto de Historia Argentina y Americana “Dr. Emilio Ravignani”, tercera serie, n. 37, segundo semestre 2012.

SÁNCHEZ SANTIRÓ, Ernest: La imperiosa necesidad: crisis y colapso del Erario de Nueva España (1808-1821), México, Instituto Mora / El Colegio de Michoacán, 2016.

SÁNCHEZ SILVA, Carlos, coord.: La Guerra de Independencia en Oaxaca. Nuevas perspectivas, Oaxaca, UABJO, 2011.

SÁNCHEZ SILVA, Carlos: “Los cabildos civil y eclesiástico de la ciudad de Oaxaca ante la invasión insurgente, 1812-1814” en SÁNCHEZ SILVA, op. cit., pp. 63-82.

SAUCEDO ZARCO, Carmen: “La Convención de las Provincias Orientales. Un proyecto de gobierno insurgente”, en SERRANO ORTEGA, op. cit., pp. 375-396.

SEMPRÚN, José y Alfonso BULLÓN DE MENDOZA: El ejército realista en la independencia americana, Madrid, Mapfre, 1992.

SERRANO ORTEGA, José Antonio, coord.: El Sexenio absolutista, los últimos años insurgentes: Nueva España (1814-1820), Zamora, Michoacán, El Colegio de Michoacán, 2014.

SERRANO ORTEGA, José Antonio: “Las herencias ilustradas y gaditanas en tiempos del absolutismo. Nueva España (1814-1819)”, en SERRANO, op. cit., pp. 191-227.

SORDO CEDEÑO, Reynaldo, et al.: Atlas conmemorativo, 1810, 1910, 2010, México, Senado de la República / Siglo XXI, 2010.

THIBAUD, Clément: Repúblicas en armas. Los ejércitos bolivarianos en la guerra de Independencia en Colombia y Venezuela, tr. Nicolás Suescún, Bogotá, Institut Français d’etudes andines, 2003.

TORRES PUGA, Gabriel: “El último aliento de la inquisición de México (1815-1820)” en SERRANO, op. cit., pp. 77-105.

TUTINO, John: “Soberanía quebrada, insurgencias populares y la independencia de México: la guerra de independencias, 1808-1821”, en Historia Mexicana 233, v. LIX, núm. 1, julio-septiembre 2009, p. 11-76.

Downloads

Published

— Updated on 2018-12-29

Issue

Vol. 7 No. 15 (2018): La Restauración como fenómeno extra-europeo, 1814-1826

Section

Dossier

License

Copyright (c) 2018 University Journal of Military History

Creative Commons License

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International License.

Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License

By exercising the Licensed Rights (defined below), You accept and agree to be bound by the terms and conditions of this Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International Public License ("Public License"). To the extent this Public License may be interpreted as a contract, You are granted the Licensed Rights in consideration of Your acceptance of these terms and conditions, and the Licensor grants You such rights in consideration of benefits the Licensor receives from making the Licensed Material available under these terms and conditions.

Section 1 – Definitions.

  1. Adapted Material means material subject to Copyright and Similar Rights that is derived from or based upon the Licensed Material and in which the Licensed Material is translated, altered, arranged, transformed, or otherwise modified in a manner requiring permission under the Copyright and Similar Rights held by the Licensor. For purposes of this Public License, where the Licensed Material is a musical work, performance, or sound recording, Adapted Material is always produced where the Licensed Material is synched in timed relation with a moving image.
  2. Copyright and Similar Rights means copyright and/or similar rights closely related to copyright including, without limitation, performance, broadcast, sound recording, and Sui Generis Database Rights, without regard to how the rights are labeled or categorized. For purposes of this Public License, the rights specified in Section 2(b)(1)-(2) are not Copyright and Similar Rights.
  3. Effective Technological Measures means those measures that, in the absence of proper authority, may not be circumvented under laws fulfilling obligations under Article 11 of the WIPO Copyright Treaty adopted on December 20, 1996, and/or similar international agreements.
  4. Exceptions and Limitations means fair use, fair dealing, and/or any other exception or limitation to Copyright and Similar Rights that applies to Your use of the Licensed Material.
  5. Licensed Material means the artistic or literary work, database, or other material to which the Licensor applied this Public License.
  6. Licensed Rights means the rights granted to You subject to the terms and conditions of this Public License, which are limited to all Copyright and Similar Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material and that the Licensor has authority to license.
  7. Licensor means the individual(s) or entity(ies) granting rights under this Public License.
  8. NonCommercial means not primarily intended for or directed towards commercial advantage or monetary compensation. For purposes of this Public License, the exchange of the Licensed Material for other material subject to Copyright and Similar Rights by digital file-sharing or similar means is NonCommercial provided there is no payment of monetary compensation in connection with the exchange.
  9. Share means to provide material to the public by any means or process that requires permission under the Licensed Rights, such as reproduction, public display, public performance, distribution, dissemination, communication, or importation, and to make material available to the public including in ways that members of the public may access the material from a place and at a time individually chosen by them.
  10. Sui Generis Database Rights means rights other than copyright resulting from Directive 96/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 March 1996 on the legal protection of databases, as amended and/or succeeded, as well as other essentially equivalent rights anywhere in the world.
  11. You means the individual or entity exercising the Licensed Rights under this Public License. Your has a corresponding meaning.

Section 2 – Scope.

  1. License grant.
    1. Subject to the terms and conditions of this Public License, the Licensor hereby grants You a worldwide, royalty-free, non-sublicensable, non-exclusive, irrevocable license to exercise the Licensed Rights in the Licensed Material to:
      1. reproduce and Share the Licensed Material, in whole or in part, for NonCommercial purposes only; and
      2. produce and reproduce, but not Share, Adapted Material for NonCommercial purposes only.
    2. Exceptions and Limitations. For the avoidance of doubt, where Exceptions and Limitations apply to Your use, this Public License does not apply, and You do not need to comply with its terms and conditions.
    3. Term. The term of this Public License is specified in Section 6(a).
    4. Media and formats; technical modifications allowed. The Licensor authorizes You to exercise the Licensed Rights in all media and formats whether now known or hereafter created, and to make technical modifications necessary to do so. The Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any right or authority to forbid You from making technical modifications necessary to exercise the Licensed Rights, including technical modifications necessary to circumvent Effective Technological Measures. For purposes of this Public License, simply making modifications authorized by this Section 2(a)(4) never produces Adapted Material.
    5. Downstream recipients.
      1. Offer from the Licensor – Licensed Material. Every recipient of the Licensed Material automatically receives an offer from the Licensor to exercise the Licensed Rights under the terms and conditions of this Public License.
      2. No downstream restrictions. You may not offer or impose any additional or different terms or conditions on, or apply any Effective Technological Measures to, the Licensed Material if doing so restricts exercise of the Licensed Rights by any recipient of the Licensed Material.
    6. No endorsement. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be construed as permission to assert or imply that You are, or that Your use of the Licensed Material is, connected with, or sponsored, endorsed, or granted official status by, the Licensor or others designated to receive attribution as provided in Section 3(a)(1)(A)(i).

  2. Other rights.

    1. Moral rights, such as the right of integrity, are not licensed under this Public License, nor are publicity, privacy, and/or other similar personality rights; however, to the extent possible, the Licensor waives and/or agrees not to assert any such rights held by the Licensor to the limited extent necessary to allow You to exercise the Licensed Rights, but not otherwise.
    2. Patent and trademark rights are not licensed under this Public License.
    3. To the extent possible, the Licensor waives any right to collect royalties from You for the exercise of the Licensed Rights, whether directly or through a collecting society under any voluntary or waivable statutory or compulsory licensing scheme. In all other cases the Licensor expressly reserves any right to collect such royalties, including when the Licensed Material is used other than for NonCommercial purposes.

Section 3 – License Conditions.

Your exercise of the Licensed Rights is expressly made subject to the following conditions.

  1. Attribution.

    1. If You Share the Licensed Material, You must:

      1. retain the following if it is supplied by the Licensor with the Licensed Material:
        1. identification of the creator(s) of the Licensed Material and any others designated to receive attribution, in any reasonable manner requested by the Licensor (including by pseudonym if designated);
        2. a copyright notice;
        3. a notice that refers to this Public License;
        4. a notice that refers to the disclaimer of warranties;
        5. a URI or hyperlink to the Licensed Material to the extent reasonably practicable;
      2. indicate if You modified the Licensed Material and retain an indication of any previous modifications; and
      3. indicate the Licensed Material is licensed under this Public License, and include the text of, or the URI or hyperlink to, this Public License.
      For the avoidance of doubt, You do not have permission under this Public License to Share Adapted Material.
    2. You may satisfy the conditions in Section 3(a)(1) in any reasonable manner based on the medium, means, and context in which You Share the Licensed Material. For example, it may be reasonable to satisfy the conditions by providing a URI or hyperlink to a resource that includes the required information.
    3. If requested by the Licensor, You must remove any of the information required by Section 3(a)(1)(A) to the extent reasonably practicable.

Section 4 – Sui Generis Database Rights.

Where the Licensed Rights include Sui Generis Database Rights that apply to Your use of the Licensed Material:

  1. for the avoidance of doubt, Section 2(a)(1) grants You the right to extract, reuse, reproduce, and Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database for NonCommercial purposes only and provided You do not Share Adapted Material;
  2. if You include all or a substantial portion of the database contents in a database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights, then the database in which You have Sui Generis Database Rights (but not its individual contents) is Adapted Material; and
  3. You must comply with the conditions in Section 3(a) if You Share all or a substantial portion of the contents of the database.

For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 4supplements and does not replace Your obligations under this Public License where the Licensed Rights include other Copyright and Similar Rights.

Section 5 – Disclaimer of Warranties and Limitation of Liability.

  1. Unless otherwise separately undertaken by the Licensor, to the extent possible, the Licensor offers the Licensed Material as-is and as-available, and makes no representations or warranties of any kind concerning the Licensed Material, whether express, implied, statutory, or other. This includes, without limitation, warranties of title, merchantability, fitness for a particular purpose, non-infringement, absence of latent or other defects, accuracy, or the presence or absence of errors, whether or not known or discoverable. Where disclaimers of warranties are not allowed in full or in part, this disclaimer may not apply to You.
  2. To the extent possible, in no event will the Licensor be liable to You on any legal theory (including, without limitation, negligence) or otherwise for any direct, special, indirect, incidental, consequential, punitive, exemplary, or other losses, costs, expenses, or damages arising out of this Public License or use of the Licensed Material, even if the Licensor has been advised of the possibility of such losses, costs, expenses, or damages. Where a limitation of liability is not allowed in full or in part, this limitation may not apply to You.
  1. The disclaimer of warranties and limitation of liability provided above shall be interpreted in a manner that, to the extent possible, most closely approximates an absolute disclaimer and waiver of all liability.

Section 6 – Term and Termination.

  1. This Public License applies for the term of the Copyright and Similar Rights licensed here. However, if You fail to comply with this Public License, then Your rights under this Public License terminate automatically.

  2. Where Your right to use the Licensed Material has terminated under Section 6(a), it reinstates:

    1. automatically as of the date the violation is cured, provided it is cured within 30 days of Your discovery of the violation; or
    2. upon express reinstatement by the Licensor.
    For the avoidance of doubt, this Section 6(b) does not affect any right the Licensor may have to seek remedies for Your violations of this Public License.
  3. For the avoidance of doubt, the Licensor may also offer the Licensed Material under separate terms or conditions or stop distributing the Licensed Material at any time; however, doing so will not terminate this Public License.
  4. Sections 1, 5, 6, 7, and 8 survive termination of this Public License.

Section 7 – Other Terms and Conditions.

  1. The Licensor shall not be bound by any additional or different terms or conditions communicated by You unless expressly agreed.
  2. Any arrangements, understandings, or agreements regarding the Licensed Material not stated herein are separate from and independent of the terms and conditions of this Public License.

Section 8 – Interpretation.

  1. For the avoidance of doubt, this Public License does not, and shall not be interpreted to, reduce, limit, restrict, or impose conditions on any use of the Licensed Material that could lawfully be made without permission under this Public License.
  2. To the extent possible, if any provision of this Public License is deemed unenforceable, it shall be automatically reformed to the minimum extent necessary to make it enforceable. If the provision cannot be reformed, it shall be severed from this Public License without affecting the enforceability of the remaining terms and conditions.
  3. No term or condition of this Public License will be waived and no failure to comply consented to unless expressly agreed to by the Licensor.
  4. Nothing in this Public License constitutes or may be interpreted as a limitation upon, or waiver of, any privileges and immunities that apply to the Licensor or You, including from the legal processes of any jurisdiction or authority.

Creative Commons is not a party to its public licenses. Notwithstanding, Creative Commons may elect to apply one of its public licenses to material it publishes and in those instances will be considered the “Licensor.” The text of the Creative Commons public licenses is dedicated to the public domain under the CC0 Public Domain Dedication. Except for the limited purpose of indicating that material is shared under a Creative Commons public license or as otherwise permitted by the Creative Commons policies published at creativecommons.org/policies, Creative Commons does not authorize the use of the trademark “Creative Commons” or any other trademark or logo of Creative Commons without its prior written consent including, without limitation, in connection with any unauthorized modifications to any of its public licenses or any other arrangements, understandings, or agreements concerning use of licensed material. For the avoidance of doubt, this paragraph does not form part of the public licenses.

Creative Commons may be contacted at creativecommons.org.

How to Cite

The Restoration in New Spain: War, Regime Changes and Militarization in New Spain, 1814-1820. (2018). Revista Universitaria De Historia Militar, 7(15). https://doi.org/10.53351/ruhm.v7i15.471

Similar Articles

1-10 of 566

You may also start an advanced similarity search for this article.